Optical Sensors for Biological and Chemical Measurement

Optical Sensors for Biological and Chemical Measurement This Literature review is divided into three main parts. They are, Surface Plasmon Resonance, BIACORE 3000 and Winspall. In these three mechanism, Surface Plasmon Resonance stood a basic platform for optical bio- sensing whereas BIACORE 3000 is an extended version. On the other hand, Winspall is a special software used to simulate the reflectivity curves. The first part of the literature review is Surface Plasmon Resonance which explains the basic concept, sensors used in SPR and application in major areas. And also the future trend of Surface Plasmon Resonance sensors has been explained. Similarly the next section has a detailed structure of BIACORE 3000 describing its sensitivity and throughput along with new instrument software. As mention above that Winspall is a special software, it has been clearly discussed in third part. In this discussion, how the reflectivity curve is simulated with the help of Winspall software is explained with taking as an example of Reflection at air- g lass interface. Surface Plasmon Resonance (SPR) Introduction: For the past two decades there is a massive increase in the field of research and development of optical sensors for the measurement of chemical and biological quantities. Measuring CO2 and O2 Concentration were developed by optical chemical sensors which is the first optical device based on the measurement changes in absorption spectrum (Lubbers, et al. 1975). The chemical sensors and biosensors use various optical methods such as Ellipsometry, Interferometry, Spectroscopy and Surface Plasmon Resonance (SPR). In these sensors a required amount is determined by measuring the refractive index, absorbance and fluorescence properties of analyte molecules (Wolfbeis et al., 1991). In late seventies, the potential of Surface Plasmon Resonance (SPR) for characterization of thin films (Pockrand et al., 1978) and monitoring processes at metal interfaces (Gordon II et al., 1980) had been recognized. In 1982, Nylander and Liedberg demonstrated the typical use of SPR for gas detection and bio-se nsing (Nylander et al., 1982). For the measurement of physical, chemical and biological quantities new SPR sensing configuration as well as application of SPR- sensing devices were developed since from the scientific community SPR had received continuously growing attention. In optical bio- sensing more than 75% of the research are based on the SPR, and SPR sensors are used commercially by several leading organizations in the field of direct real- time observation of the bio- molecular interactions. What is meant by SPR: SPR has many practical applications in sensitive detectors and it is having the ability to detect sub-monomolecular coverage. This phenomenon was first observed by Wood in 1902 (Wood, 1902), according to him, SPR is a pattern of anomalous dark and light bands in the reflected light when the light is polarised on a mirror with a diffraction grating on its surface. And the phenomenon of physical interpretation was initiated by Lord Rayleigh (Rayleigh, 1907) and additionally it was enhanced (Fano et al., 1941) but since 1968 there is no detail and complete explanation of the phenomenon. In the same year Otto (Otto, et al. 1969) and Kretschmann and Raether (Kretschmann, et al., 1968) reported in detail about the excitation of surface Plasmons. Optical chemical sensors and biosensors in SPR: Usually, an Optical sensor is a transducing medium which correlates the optical and bio- chemical domains and the system which supports the optoelectronic components of an electronic system and allowing data processing. The transducing medium converts the quantity of interest change into refractive index change which may be estimated by optically interrogating the SPR. The SPR sensor of an optical system contain two parts, one is the source of optical radiation and another one is the optical structure in which surface Plasma Waves (SPW) is excited and interrogated. In this SPR interrogation process, the electronic system process and generates the electronic signal and the properties of sensors subsystem only determines the major properties of an SPR sensor. The properties of an optical system and the transducing medium is dependent to the sensor sensitivity, stability and resolution whereas the selectivity and response time of the sensor are mostly estimates by the properties of tran sducing medium. Technologies and materials used in SPR-sensing devices: There are various technologies employed in the fabrication of SPR sensors since SPR chemical sensing and bio- sensing has multidisciplinary nature. But in particular there are two technologies which are considered as most important on the fabrication of SPR sensors. They are the fabrication of the optical part of the sensing element and preparation of Opto- chemical transducing medium. Application of SPR sensors in major areas: Measurement of physical quantities in SPR Based upon the sensitivity of SPR to the momentum of the incident light wave the displacement (Margheri et al., 1996) and angular position of SPR sensors is measured. For the development of SPR -sensing devices various optical transducing materials have been exploited including the refractive index changes of porous thin layers and polymers (Weiss et al., 1996) by humidity sensor and a temperature sensor based on the thermo- optic effect (Chadwick, 1993). SPR chemical sensing: Direct measurement of refractive index using an SPR sensor can be achieved by complexity variation in the concentration of analyte and due to the adsorption or chemical reaction of an analyte with a transducing medium the measurement of SPR variation are dependent to chemical SPR sensors which results in changes in its optical properties. Surface Plasmon Resonance Bio- sensing In 1983, the first application of SPR to bio- sensing was demonstrated (Liedberg, 1983), previously the demonstration was carried out and developed by some other groups (Flanagan et al., 1984). The real time bio- specific interaction analysis method was the first survey on Surface Plasmon Resonance which is appeared on 1994 (Lundstrà ¶m, 1994) frequently used and continuously improved for examination of kinetic and thermodynamics constants of bio- molecular interactions. The direct detection of binding reaction is used for the purpose of analyte quantification, however, the adsorption of small molecules produces the increase in refractive index which is not sufficient to detect directly. Commercialization of Surface Plasmon Resonance sensor technology: The first commercial SPR bio- sensor was launched on 1990 by Swedish BIAcore AB which leads to systematic development of SPR bio- sensor technology. Then the BIAcore sensor technology has been further developed in terms of speed, throughput and accuracy. At present BIAcore offers a number of models of SPR bio- sensors (BIACORE 3000, BIACORE 2000, BIACORE X, BIACORE 1000, BiacoreQuant) (Sinclair et al., 1990). By further growth of commercialisation of optical bio- sensor system results in the development of another SPR bio- sensor system (TI- SPR- 1Experimenters Kit, Spreeta Evaluation Kit) by Texas Instrument in USA [127]. There is another SPR bio- sensor system called Kinetic instrument 1 which has been developed by Bio TuL Bio Instruments GmbH (Germany). The recent SPR sensor which is commercially available is waveguide- based device using wavelength interrogation in a multimode optical fibre developed by EBI sensors (Washington, USA). Future trends in development of Surface Plasmon Resonance sensors Even though SPR is used in many fields, there is a necessity for detection and analysis of chemical and bio- chemical substances in many significant areas such as medical, environmental monitoring, bio- technology, drug and food monitoring. SPR sensor technology holds potential for applications in the mentioned areas. At present SPR bio- sensors devices compete with other types of bio- sensors (Owen, 1997) and the currently available bio- sensors covers only some degree of area of (bio) chemical monitoring market aiming primarily at research and analytical laboratories. So, a new SPR bio- sensor is need to compete the existing system to cover the specialised laboratories and testing sites on the basis of factor such as cheap, ease of use, robustness, sensitivity and stability. Conclusion For the past 10 years there is a great improvement in Surface Plasmon Resonance sensors technology with many numbers of applications. Even more the SPR sensors technology will get growth and extend in the usage by developing new type of bio- sensors which competes the existing system and also designing low- cost, allow sensitive and fast in speed. BIAcore 3000 Introduction For label free studies of bio- molecular binding, BIAcore 3000 is considered as highest performance research system which is existing currently. The substances such as lipid vesicles, viruses, bacteria and eukaryotic cells which are ranging from small molecules to crude extracts can be studied. Speed, strength and specificity of binding and determination of active concentration of components questions have been answered by BIAcore 3000 and it is an ideal tool for functional proteomics. For the future trends, there are lot to invent technically which has to meet the highest demands for efficiency, sensitivity and flexibility. The awareness and experience of BIAcore 3000 is an effective guide for the users without effort through preparation, evaluation and experimentation has been incorporated into Wizards. This BIAcore 3000 follows the C- language Conditional IF/THEN statements to response perfectly to changes in run conditions, since it provide a trend analysis and preliminary result s at the end of runs. For an individual sample characterisation BIAcore 3000 is used to design, where the highest resolution in kinetic analysis and automation of multi- sample analyses is crucial and it provides a superior performance for kinetic analysis. Highest signal to noise ratio and a high data acquisition achieves increased resolution. BIACORE 3000 represents the logical next step in the development of BIACORE systems for sophisticated binding studies, with better sensitivity, higher throughput, improved liquid flow properties and an easier software interface than previous system in the series (Francis, 1998). High sensitivity BIAcore has an working range as little as 10 RU, but it can be able to detect up to 70000 RU (one RU is equivalent to one picogram protein per square millimetre on the sensor surface) and also it has highest sensitivity to monitor the bio- molecular binding which ensures in the interpretation of related kinetic data and in the detection of binding events. The molecular weights of the binding partners and experimental conditions are dependent to the measurement of kinetic and affinity parameters. The controlled experimental conditions ensure precisely in the design of micro- fluidic pathway and in the detection system of BIAcore 3000. By comparing to other BIAcore systems, BIAcore 3000 has the ability to generate twice the signal from the same sample injection time. The micro- fluidic pathway of BIAcore 3000 has four flow cells overlaid in single sensor surface in which the each cell consists with a volume of 0.02  µl. During a single sample injection one cell has used to be as a true reference. The resolution and information from a single run will be maximised by automatic in- line reference subtraction and the signals will be resolved by reducing the background noise. Improved Throughput There is a significant difference in the design of IFC, between BIAcore 3000 and to its predecessors, where the height of the flow cells has been reduced to less than half. This may create some trivial sound, but the binding measurement in the screening application and kinetic analysis has important consequences. The mass transfer of analyte to the surface height is improved by the consequence of the lower flow cell, where as the height is inversely proportional to the mass transfer co- efficient for diffusion controlled transfer. If the height is increased by the factor 2, then the mass transfer co- efficient for diffusion will decreases by factor 1.6. Similarly, we can link this to the practical terms, that is, the faster kinetics can be measured without interference from mass transfer process. It also means that same response is achieved in the shorter time in a mass transfer limited situation in which the sample throughput is increased in screening situations. The improved sensit ivity enhances the gain which allows the system to work at lower relative response levels confidently. Streamlined wash routines between the introduction of new reagent rack and analysis cycles improves the automated analysis situation by throughput which allows 192 wells in two micro- plates to be used for samples. But some users of BIAcore 3000 says that clogging problems in the flow system is due to the reduced flow cell height when particular samples such as crude extracts or whole cell suspension are used. At the same time the users do not report problems when the clogging in micro- flow systems is quoted as an argument in favour of open curvette systems even when the analyses involving whole cells and there is no cause to think that the lower flow cell height in the BIAcore will built important clogging problems (Francis M, 1998). Software The BIAcore 3000 instruments have large improvements technically by introduction of new softwares which is designed to improve the analysis quality and to simplify the operation. Latest versions of the control software BIAcore 2000 have all these features. The BIAcore 2000 and BIAcore 3000 consists two- channel system BIAcore X with line reference subtraction method. Due to this, the users can progress and evaluate their data with confidently and also the data quality improves to large extent. The new IFC (Integrated fluidic cartridge) in the BIAcore 3000 is used to bypass the flow cells and to improve the cost- efficiency of chip operation. The features of BIAcore control software is due to the introduction of application wizards since the application wizard provides step by step information in a clear way to a particular kind of experiment for designing and interpreting the results with on-line help and feedback give the correct chance of achievement. The informations through on-li ne functions and the wizards were created based on the experience of binding studies over the years and it provides a new experience to the users and benefits to the companys expertise. Conclusion In summary, BIAcore 3000 is considered as most advanced system in the series of BIAcore and also it represents the present state of the art in technology for affinity- based bio- sensors. The system will extend the range of applications by the technology with higher sensitivity, improve in sampling handling and enhanced kinetic analysis facilities to cover many of the small molecules like cofactors, signalling substances present in the basic science research and drug candidates in the pharmaceutical industry. For dealing the large amount of high quality data, the refinement of hardware and computer software involved in the BIAcore system can provide and this is considered as a developed approach. Processing the data in the system becomes more and more of a bottle neck since the automated analysis becomes faster and more complicated. Winspall Introduction: To simulate the surface Plasmon resonance curves special software is designed based on the Fresnel formalism which is called as Winspall, developed by A. Scheller at the Max Planck Institute for polymer Research (Chifen, 2007). This software is very easy to use and gives accurate results when simulating the reflection curves (RES- TEC, 2010). Similarly, Winspall software is also used to determine the layer thickness in deposited LB (Langmuir- Blodgett) layers (KSV Inst, 2010). In many practical and commercial application electronic components such as sensors, detectors, displays and circuit boards provides the ability to assemble ordered molecular films with tailored functionality over macroscopic lateral dimensions. This technique is called as Langmuir- Blodgett (LB) deposition. In this deposition, technique the air- water interface contains micro particles and nano particles which are to be compressed and transferred to solid substrate. Here, the Winspall software is used to find t he deposition thickness between the particle layers and also the Fresnel coefficients of each film/ layer with recursion formalism will be calculated (Chifen, 2007). Simulation of Reflectivity curve using Winspall: As mentioned above, Winspall is used to simulate the reflection curves; this section gives a detail view how the reflected curve is simulated using Winspall software with an example. Let us consider an easy prism experiment, base of the prism reflects the laser beam and reflected light is the function of the angle of incidence. Now this reflected curve from the prism is going to be simulating using Winspall. So for this, we need the optical prism constant and air constant. The Winspall software consists of a special simulation parameter table (Fig 2) where the optical comments are to be filled; depending upon the optical parameters the simulation results will be made. For the above example we have to fill the optical components parameter such as prism and air. The first optical parameter is prism; we have to enter the thickness (no 1) 0 for in the table. And then the real and imaginary part of dielectric constant should be filled. The real part of dielectric constant is 2.29 in our example and the imaginary part is zero due to the absence of adsorption in the glass. The second optical component is air (no 2), no thickness and real part of dielectric constant is 1 and imaginary part is zero. Now the simulation parameters are filled in the table. The next step is to click the OK button to get simulation output. Once the OK button is clicked on the simulation parameter window, we will get a simulation curve as an output (Fig 3) for the filled values in the table in separate window. This is the typical curve describes the total internal reflection occurred in the prism and the reflected light separates high index from low index material. In general whenever a light passes through the interface, there will be no reflection at low angles, when the angle gets large the total internal reflection will occur. Below the window shows the simulation output for the values which were filled in the table. This graph explains that below 39 degree there is no reflection, when the angle increases the light get reflects until the total internal reflection is reached. Now to modify or to adjust the reflectivity curve, extra optical components value should be added in the table. In the above case, we are going to add another component between the glass and the air. It is 50 nm thick gold layer with the optical constants Eps-X real=-12.45 and Eps-X imag=1.3. Due to the minor differences in the evaporation process the above mentioned optical constant values for gold varies to some extent. Once these values are entered and we clicked OK button in the simulation parameter window, we will get a curve which is entirely different when compared to previous output (Fig 3). Because of reflective property of gold, first the total internal reflection becomes very thin from 0 to almost 1 and then around 43 degrees a surface Plasmon shows up a strong dip in reflectivity. Due to this strong dip, now the total intensity will jump in this Plasmon and there wont be any part of light reflection occurs. This simulation output curve describes the optical properties of a typical blank substrate used for surface Plasmon measurements. The below shown window consists of simulation output for newer optical component values Now to get real Plasmon and thin layers, a 3nm thick gold layer is added on the top with the dielectric constant of 2.11 (n=1.45) maybe some polymer or a protein. Once the new dielectric constant value in added, there will be a change in the simulation output curve (Fig 4) i.e. the Plasmon resonance shifted a little. We are now about half a degree higher. This shift can be easily measured and for the investigation of such thin layers Surface Plasmon Spectroscopy is well apt. Similarly to get thicker layer 30 nm thick gold layer used on the top which gives result as stronger shift of the Plasmon resonance. But when try to increase the strong shift of Plasmon resonance curve by using 300 nm thick layers a very sharp dip is found in the reflectivity curve at smaller angle. At this smaller a new waveguide mode occurred instead of Plasmon. By increasing the thickness i.e. by adding the thick gold layer with different nm thick on the top we will get more and more waveguides on the reflect ivity spectrum. The below window diagram shows the five waveguide modes in the range for 70 degree for 3 micro meter thick layer. At the same time waveguides can also be found in s-polarised light. This s-polarised light waveguides are also can be simulate by Winspall software. On the other hand, using the Winspall software the Surface Plasmon Resonance curve can be evaluated very easily. This is carried out by the same process, just filling the simulation parameter table. Conclusion: Winspall is special user- friendly software to represent the Surface Plasmon Resonance curves and also it very easy to carry the simulation and evaluation of reflectivity curves.

Immigration and the U.S. :: Legal Issues, Illegal Immigration

Since 2001, when September 11th happened, many people in the United States have had a fear of allowing immigrants into the U.S. It went to levels of border control and more. Therefore some judge that immigration is a threat to the U.S. They should not consider that because everything that occurs is not due to immigrants, it is just â€Å"The Realities of Immigration† (Chavez, 46). The government can stop illegal immigration right now but would it not affect the U.S. more to do so? â€Å"Restrictionists claim that large-scale immigration-legal and illegal-has depressed wages, burdened government resources, and acted as a net drain on the economy† (Chavez, 47). Thus, if immigration was eliminated, the U.S. would have fewer workers. With a reduction of workers, money would be less therefore, causing the economy to plunge. People come to the U.S. to work and make a living, why would the government want to stop that? â€Å"If Americans would simply cut their own grass, cle an their own houses, and care for their own children, there would be no need for immigrant labors. But even if this were true, the overall economy would hardly benefit from having fewer workers† (Chavez, 47). Without immigrants, the economy would not flow smoothly because the workers make the jobs and economy better. Third world immigration is not a threat to America’s way of life because immigrants work, immigrants participate, and â€Å"illegal immigration already responds reasonably well to market forces† (Chavez, 50). Immigrants that come into the U.S. are not coming to harm anyone; they come to work and make a living. Hispanics and other races usually want to find a job and the U.S. has good quality jobs. â€Å"Despite the presence in our workforce of millions of illegal immigrants, the U.S. is currently creating slightly more than two million jobs a year and boasts an unemployment rate of 4.7 percent, which is lower than average in each of the past four decades† (Chavez, 47). Therefore, the U.S. consisted of several illegal immigrants that worked. That shows that they’ve done no harm. Just worked and made a living a majority of the time. They are good workers and as the U.S. generate more than two million jobs each year, the population of immigrant’s increases. It increases because the jobs increase thus, more immigrants come to the U.S. and work. The more people work, the more new jobs are prepared and the better the economy gets. Immigration and the U.S. :: Legal Issues, Illegal Immigration Since 2001, when September 11th happened, many people in the United States have had a fear of allowing immigrants into the U.S. It went to levels of border control and more. Therefore some judge that immigration is a threat to the U.S. They should not consider that because everything that occurs is not due to immigrants, it is just â€Å"The Realities of Immigration† (Chavez, 46). The government can stop illegal immigration right now but would it not affect the U.S. more to do so? â€Å"Restrictionists claim that large-scale immigration-legal and illegal-has depressed wages, burdened government resources, and acted as a net drain on the economy† (Chavez, 47). Thus, if immigration was eliminated, the U.S. would have fewer workers. With a reduction of workers, money would be less therefore, causing the economy to plunge. People come to the U.S. to work and make a living, why would the government want to stop that? â€Å"If Americans would simply cut their own grass, cle an their own houses, and care for their own children, there would be no need for immigrant labors. But even if this were true, the overall economy would hardly benefit from having fewer workers† (Chavez, 47). Without immigrants, the economy would not flow smoothly because the workers make the jobs and economy better. Third world immigration is not a threat to America’s way of life because immigrants work, immigrants participate, and â€Å"illegal immigration already responds reasonably well to market forces† (Chavez, 50). Immigrants that come into the U.S. are not coming to harm anyone; they come to work and make a living. Hispanics and other races usually want to find a job and the U.S. has good quality jobs. â€Å"Despite the presence in our workforce of millions of illegal immigrants, the U.S. is currently creating slightly more than two million jobs a year and boasts an unemployment rate of 4.7 percent, which is lower than average in each of the past four decades† (Chavez, 47). Therefore, the U.S. consisted of several illegal immigrants that worked. That shows that they’ve done no harm. Just worked and made a living a majority of the time. They are good workers and as the U.S. generate more than two million jobs each year, the population of immigrant’s increases. It increases because the jobs increase thus, more immigrants come to the U.S. and work. The more people work, the more new jobs are prepared and the better the economy gets.

Epistemology †Plato Essay

There were many great philosophers who have contributed in making philosophy what it is today, one of them being Plato. In addition to being an outstanding philosopher, he was also a mathematician and a writer. One of Plato’s biggest inspirations was his very own teacher Socrates. Socrates never wrote down a word of what he said, but thankfully Plato was able to record it all down for him and wrote many dialogues about Socrates words and teachings. One of Plato’s most famous works was his dialogue, The Republic which was written in 380 BC. The Republic consists of ten books total each consisting of different topics concerning ancient philosophy. From reading a short excerpt from the philosophical text: Western Philosophy: An Anthology (Second Edition) edited John Cottingham, Cottingham takes an excerpt from (Plato, Republic [Politeia, c. 3800 BC], Bk V, 474b-483e. Trans. B. Jowett, in The Dialogues of Plato (Oxford: Clarendon, 1892), vol. lll, pp. 171-9)), Plato writes about knowledge versus opinion and Socrates views on each from a first person point of view. In the following excerpt there is an ongoing conversation between Socrates and Glaucon discussing their personal views and thoughts on knowledge and opinion. Socrates does not oppose of having opinions, he says they can later be turned into knowledge. These beliefs and opinions will only act as a guide to our knowledge. Socrates believes that opinions are very good and can be useful while one has them as they stay in our minds, but they are only temporary and eventually will leave our minds. Opinions are not of great value and will escape from our minds. This means they will not be worth much until they are tied down and figured out by working out the reason. Once they are tied down those opinions will evolve into knowledge. This knowledge is permanent and overall much better than true opinion. Knowledge is when one can thoroughly and fully explain why a certain belief is correct. Knowledge can be used to back up ones opinion by using facts and explanations from prior experience. Socrates believed that philosophers were to rule the polis’ of Greece because they were better than all the others due to the knowledge they held. He believed that anyone who did not have knowledge and rather held to their opinions should remain as followers, that it is only possible for a leader to have knowledge and only philosophers can have knowledge. Socrates felt philosophers were the only ones who could have knowledge because they knew the process of reason. Knowledge is what makes a philosopher who he is and separates him from the rest of mankind. Philosophers are a different kind, special people, being able to see and know more than what meets the eye. Socrates believes that philosophers should be rulers and kings of Greece. Knowledge is so power that one could mange to be a king. In Socrates mind, philosophers would be the best fit to being a king and having all rule. Knowledge and opinion are very different powers, therefore they must have different objects. Everyday objects can be told and described to be what they are in detail. For example, Iona College has a beautiful campus. This very statement is in between what is, and what is not. Knowledge is relevant to what is, and opinions are just assumptions. This is where Plato introduces us to his theory of the forms, which are absolute true objects of knowledge. Forms cannot be obtained from any of the senses, only from true knowledge. Forms are absolutes such as justice, happiness, goodness, etc. Forms are responsible for making sense of our surroundings and making sense of why things are as they are. On page 13 in John Cottingham’s book, Socrates says, â€Å"I need not remind you, that a lover, if he is worthy of the name, ought to show his love not to some one part of that which he loves, but of the whole. † meaning when someone loves something they love the entirety of it, not just a part but every part. Socrates knows that the average human is unable to love something for all that it is because they do not have any knowledge. The philosopher loves all knowledge and wisdom and will always be curious and stay open-minded until they find knowledge. During this dialogue Glaucon disagrees with what Socrates says, Glaucon believes that you do not need to be a philosopher in order to be curious and know things. Socrates says that the difference between a person of that type and a philosopher is that philosophers are lovers of truth. On page 14, Socrates says, â€Å"The lovers of sound and sights, I replied, are, as I conceive, fond of fine tones and colours and forms and all the artificial products that are made out of them, but their mind is incapable of seeing or loving absolute beauty. † He is saying that philosophers are very different from the lovers of sight and sound because they claim to know all about the beauty of things but cannot claim to have any knowledge. Those lovers of sight and sound do not see the beauty itself, they are only lovers of opinion. These lovers cannot, and will not ever be philosophers. Whereas philosopher embrace each and every thing for itself and each part that it is. Socrates is defining a true philosopher as someone who desires the entirety of knowledge and loves the sight of truth. A lover of truth is a knower of truth. This knowledge that philosophers possess are the forms. Socrates does not actually know of the World of Forms, he never gives a name to these realities and form of true knowledge. Plato is the one who introduced the world of forms based off of Socrates ideas. When reading The Republic, one must infer that Socrates is talking about the forms. Socrates knows the forms are present, that there is a higher level of knowledge and reality, but never puts a name to this object. Knowledge is certain and can never change due to the forms. Socrates is a firm believer in that knowledge as a whole is relative to being and knows being. He then will go further and divide all being into classes. The classes are, what is completely and what is not at all. These classes can be further divided into what is both and what is not. What is completely is knowable, which is also the forms because only they can count as what is knowable. The forms are certain knowledge and unchangeable. Only philosophers have knowledge because only they have access to the forms. What is in no way is inexperience and what has not used by the senses. What both is and is not is the matter of opinion. Knowledge and opinion can be separated since they are such different objects. The philosopher is known for being wide awake on top of having knowledge. The philosopher is awake to reality of the world and his eyes are wide open to understanding truth and consuming knowledge. Being in his actual world he is able to use reason and come to conclusion of obtaining knowledge. The non-philosopher, the one who only has opinions is a dreamer, living in a dream world. This dream world is only a reflection of the forms, which are only minor images and are not existent. This dreamer can be awoken from his slumber of the world of forms once his temporary turn into more permanent knowledge. Socrates now introduces faculties of our mind which are knowledge of the real and our notion in appearances. One can use reason to understand the properties of the form of beauty, when doing this that one has achieved the power of knowledge of beauty for its true self. But if one only see some parts of beauty they only believe in its general appearance. His senses can deceive him if that is all he is doing. This person cannot be a philosopher for believing in only the appearance of a thing. Glaucon compares the attempt to separate knowledge from the belief in appearance by saying this process is so weak that it reminds him of riddles and children’s puzzles. On page 17 Glaucon says, â€Å"They are like punning riddles which are asked at feasts or the children’s puzzle, and upon what the bat was sitting. A man who was not a man (a eunuch) threw a stone that was not a stone (a pumice-stone) at a bird that was not a bird (a bat) sitting on a twig that was not a twig (a reed). † Glaucon is expressing the misperception of the intellect and how it is hard to actually separate knowledge from the appearances of things. As one can see from The Republic, Socrates has generally the same repeating ideas about those who have knowledge and those who have opinions. It is extremely clear that Socrates only believes that philosophers are the only ones who have knowledge. The non-philosophers consist of those who only have opinions meaning they only view the appearance of things. These non-philosophers are quick to judge a thing not for itself due to the fact that they are lacking from knowledge in their minds. Plato introduces us to a new concept the world based off of the teachings of Socrates. This new concept is the world of forms and will take us into a deeper understanding of knowledge more than one could ever think to have known. The forms are what lead us to true knowledge. With the help of the knowledge from the forms one can now know reason, and why things are the way they are. The world we live in now makes sense and everything can come into place. In conclusion Socrates says knowledge is much more powerful than opinions, that the philosophers who love the truth in each thing are to be known as lovers of knowledge, they are not and never will be lovers of opinion due to how much knowledge they have.

International Marketing Assignment (current Issue) Essay

International Marketing Assignment (current Issue) Essay International Marketing Assignment (current Issue) – Essay Example DRAFT Tylor in the article â€Å"Samsungs S4 heads for a Galaxy far, far away† explores the increased properties of the new Samsung galaxy S4 tablet and its features, classified as the best smart phone in the market as yet. The phone that has an 18 inch screen has been developed with the most sophisticated Android technology ever on earth. The phone seeks to maintain the leadership of Samsung in the smart phones industry. Product innovation involves the creation of a new product or improving the features of an existing product. The smart phone has new software features and increased hardware tweaks in a package similar to Samsung galaxy S3, although it is greatly improvised than the previous. The elements of the phone include a metal casing; it is narrower than its predecessor the Galaxy S4. Its screen is clearer and brighter in comparison to other phones. The phone has a removable battery pack which makes it switchable when it runs out of power. However, the hardware is consi dered to be non-revolutionary. Contrary to this, the software is nice since a user do not have to touch the screen to navigate through the applications. It has a facial recognition element. According to the smart phone has been designed to be water proof and Taylor, P. (2013, Mar 15). Samsungs S4 heads for a galaxy far, far away.  Financial Times. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1317138701?accountid=45049Seitz, P. (2013, Mar 14). Qualcomm seen as key beneficiary of samsung galaxy S4.  Investors Business Daily. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1324599173?accountid=45049Sebastian, A. (2013). Samsung galaxy S4 dimensions, weight, battery, and hardware specs confirmed ahead of launch.ExtremeTech.Com,  Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1318492357?accountid=45049

Macroeconomic policy of Reserve Bank of Australia Essays - Economy

Macroeconomic policy of Reserve Bank of Australia Essays - Economy THE DECISION OF THE RESERVE BANK OF AUSTRALIA TO KEEP THE INTEREST RATE UNCHANGED AT 1.5% Case Study By Tapas K. Chakraborty TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION 3 OBJECTIVES OF MONETARY POLICY 5 MACROECONOMIC INDICATORS OF MAJOR COUNTRIES 9 JUSTIFICATION FOR THE DECISION 10 MONEY MARKET EQUILIBRIUM AND MONETARY TRANSMISSION MECHANISM14 ECONOMIC GROWTH18 CONCLUSION19 REFERENCES20 INTRODUCTION The instant case study is built upon succinct analysis of the macroeconomic dynamics interacting in Australian and global landscape, before and aftermath of the decision of the Reserve Bank of Australia (RBA) to keep the interest rate unchanged at 1.50%. The important macroeconomic policy decision was announced by the Governor of RBA in the media release dated 4th December, 2018. It was asserted by Mr. Lowe, Governor of RBA, that financial conditions of Australia and advanced economies did not warrant any change in the existing cash rate. The Reserve Bank of Australia (RBA) Board, after the meeting, unanimously agreed that no monetary stimulus resulting from lowering of interest is necessary in the background of expansionary domestic and international economy The RBA Governing body's decision to keep the interest rate unchanged is based upon the macroeconomic dynamics underpinning the money market and goods market equilibrium, and the effect that interest rate could instill upon the equilibrium in money market and good market. The RBA Board posits that global economic conditions have improved since 2017, and most of the advanced economies have been able to register more than expected positive economic growth, and the employment scenario of the countries have significantly improved. Australia's terms of trade (TOT) has improved and continues to be robust. This shows the country is capable of combating cost-push inflation as the prices of imported goods continue to be at the lower side. The RBA Board also argues that inflationary pressure of all the advanced countries including Australia is near the acceptable level as wage-push inflationary pressure remains low. The economies of many advanced countries are in expansionary path in spite of absence of any monetary stimulus. The optimism in the Australian economy is well evidenced in the strong equity market, less volatility, and diminished gap between bond yield and other maturities. The economy of the country grew at expected rate during the quarter ended September, 2018, and the Gross Domestic Product GDP) of the country is expected to grow by 3% in the next five years. Increased business activities in the country are evidenced in increase in capacity utilization of industries and better performance by non-mining sectors. The RBA is of the view that the infrastructure of the country is highly conducive to economic growth, unemployment rate is declining, and labor-force participation continues to improve. The 2% percent underlying inflation rate in the country is expected to improve to further effective level as the economy expands. OBJECTIVES OF MONETARY POLICY Monetary policy is an envelope of policies involving interest rate, public debt, and monetary standards, intended to influence credit volume, price level, and economic activities ( The Balance, 2017). The chief objective of monetary policy is to protect the economy from the onslaught of trade cycles. An elastic monetary policy enables the country to achieve sustained growth at healthy rate of inflation. The apex banking institution of a country monitors the volume of money in the economy by adopting appropriate monetary policy depending upon the macroeconomic conditions of the country. The Central Bank of a country controls credit by open market operations, selective credit control, and fluctuations in the interest rate. The first two methods are intended to control supply of money directly, while the last one is meant for indirectly controlling the demand for money. Functions of money: The following 5 important functions are performed by money: (Cliff Notes, 2017); It is the medium of exchange. It acts as a store of value. It functions as standard of measuring value . It serves as the standard of deferred payments. It is used for transferring value from one place to another. Functions of RBA: RBA, established under Reserve Bank Act, 1959, is the apex banking authority of the country entrusted with the task of monitoring the monetary mechanism required for smooth functioning of the economy for sustained economic growth of the country. The RBA is responsible for maintaining adequate resource flow

Case study- social commerce creates new customer relationship Study

- social commerce creates new customer relationship - Case Study Example Best Buy maintains a very large following in social media, actually using all of the data gathered from customer sentiment and question/answer opportunities with dedicated response staff as an evaluation tool. Best Buy conducts analytical research using social media data to determine whether its promotions are meeting with success. The article warns, however, that there are difficulties to using social media as a promotional tool, citing Starbucks as an example. This company received many photos chastising Starbucks for its labor practices, rather than delivering photos of advertising posters mandated by the contest. 1. Assess the people, organization, and technology issues for using social media to engage with customers. Pornpitakpan (2003) identifies the importance of using celebrity endorsers for improving a product brand position. Consumers find that a brand is more credible when an attractive and trustworthy celebrity endorses the product. When using social media, the people wit hin the organization become a type of celebrity endorser (such as Steve Jobs at Apple, Inc.), thus the information being provided to customers must be considered credible. Companies such as Best Buy, with their Twelp Force responders, become the face of Best Buy and therefore their behaviors must be controlled, the depth of their competence must be evaluated, and the content being transmitted over the social network must be relevant to consumer needs. From a people perspective, it would add risk by having employees represent the company and a potential cost burden. The company would also have to organize social media activities within the value chain, ensuring supervision, control systems, and those responsible for developing creative Web content. Using social media might require a more decentralized organization. In relation to technology, the brand using this platform for promotion or customer relationship management would need to ensure they have staff trained in gathering analyt ical online data and transforming it into useful information. 2. What are the advantages and disadvantages of using social media for advertising, brand building, market research and customer service? There are many advantages for using these sites. Apple, Inc., as one example, often uses social media to gain more presence with customers. Apple has the highest brand loyalty of any technology company, according to JD Power (Info Tech, 2007). Apple has conducted considerable market research about the lifestyles and attitudes of customers and is able to generate content that is relevant to these beliefs and lifestyles. Thus, what social media does for Apple is create real-time relationship development and interactivity with the Apple brand in a way that is not met by competitors. Social media sites also fit under the psychological theory of social learning. When people look toward their peers about product purchasing, they will often emulate these behaviors. Thus, the social media sites provide meaningful peer feedback that in turn changes attitudes about a brand. Best Buy, as illustrated in the case study, is a benchmark of using real-time response units to provide better customer service. Social media serves as a platform for engagement in a way not seen traditionally. Disadvantages can be illustrated by companies like

Direct & eMarketing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Direct & eMarketing - Essay Example To assert that the internet is just another channel to market is an understatement. It has revolutionized the way in which marketing is done. The advent of the New Media and Internet has increased possibilities of online marketing and internet retailing with new features of interactive shopping, pod casting and e-marketing. Consumers are connected to online shopping sites with WiFi, Internet or 3G mobile phones. E commerce has taken a new dimension in retailing with increasing number of people shopping online and even making flight bookings online (Papers4you.com, 2006). There is a range of access platforms such as web, e-mail, mobile phones and interactive digital TV that comprise the online channels which e-marketers use to build and develop relationships with customers. E-marketing, as specialists of CISCO puts it, "is a generic term utilized for a wide range of activities - advertising, customer communications, branding, fidelity programs - using the internet. More than the simple development of a website, e-marketing focuses on online communications, direct dialog with consumers who thus participate to the creation of new products, finding efficient methods to win customer's fidelity and ease their business-making process. eMarketing is the sum of activities a company makes with the purpose of finding, attracting, winning and retaining customers" (Otlacan, 2005). Accordingly, e-marketing allows relational exchanges in digital, networked and interactive environments. As a way of online shopping, e-marketing include service providers selling services and retail businesses selling items to customers and auctioneers as well who create marketplaces where citizens can buy and sell goods through the internet (Summers, Smith, et al, 2003). The tools used are a wide array of electronic possibilities that very much involve electronic mails. Practical illustrations of how internet marketing works are observed in the processes on which eBay, Yahoo! and Amazon.com undertake to facilitate its business. People who've got used to eBay don't often stop to think how amazing it is - an online marketplace where you can buy things from all over the world, without leaving your home. You can get things that you would never think anyone would bother to sell, and you can get them cheaply. The powerful search engine means that you can find things you'll like without even knowing exactly what you're looking for. Customers can buy goods from these online shopping sites by logging on to their websites (www.ebay.com). As online retailers, these businesses provide customers with pictures and descriptions of the products posted for sales transactions. In the case of Amazon.com, customer reviews of their books in addition to the book descriptions are provided. The sales process is conducted with the use of credit cards. Customers are required to enter the information from the credit card into the computer. With the information coming from the credit card, the modem sends out the details to the financial institution. Credit card is undoubtedly the dominant method of payment used to shop online. As the popularity of online shopping grows, many online retailers have increased their credit card security on their websites. Online retailers use encryption technology to make credit card information more secure and provide the padlock or unbroken key symbols in the